Crystallography & Symmetry
patterns derived from their groups
Series

Homometry — the series

6 essays on one idea, from the one that introduces it to the one that assumes the rest.
  1. Two structures on 8 sites with the same vectors. Two arrangements of 4 atoms on a ring of 8 positions. They are not the same arrangement — no rotation of the ring and no reflection carries one onto the other — and every interatomic vector occurs the same number of times in both. The bars below are the shared vector counts, which is the Patterson function of each: the tall one at the origin is the atom count and carries no information, and everything else is what a diffraction experiment measures. Their diffraction patterns are identical in every intensity, so no measurement of intensities, at any resolution, distinguishes them.

    Two structures, one Patterson

    Eight arrangements of four atoms on a ring of eight sites, and only seven distinct sets of interatomic vectors between them. Two of the arrangements are genuinely different and no measurement of intensities can tell them apart — at any resolution, for ever.

    part 1 · diffraction
  2. Where a homometric pair comes from. A set that factors as a sumset gives its own partner. If every point of A is a sum b + c with b in B and c in C, and every sum arises once, then reversing C produces a different set with the same vectors — because reversing a factor and reversing its conjugate cancel in the product that the vector set is. Both factors must be asymmetric, which is the constraint that decides where the construction can be used: a two-point set is its own reflection up to a translation, so the smallest useful factorisation is three points by three points, and the smallest structure it builds has nine atoms.

    Where the pairs come from

    A structure whose atoms are the sums of two smaller sets has a partner: reverse one factor and the interatomic vectors do not notice. The construction is Patterson's own, it explains why homometry exists, and the smallest structure it can build has nine atoms for a reason worth following.

    part 2 · diffraction
  3. Two plane structures with one Patterson. Two arrangements of 4 atoms on a 4 by 4 torus. No translation and no half-turn carries one onto the other, so they are different structures; every interatomic vector occurs the same number of times in both, so no measurement of intensities distinguishes them. The plane case is not the chain case with an extra index: a mirror in the plane sends a vector set to its mirror image rather than to itself, which is the one place the analogy with a cycle breaks.

    Two structures on a torus, and one Patterson

    Homometry was settled here on a ring of positions, which is a crystal in one dimension. Moving the same exhaustive search to a torus asks whether the coincidence is commoner or rarer when the vectors have a plane to land in — and the honest answer is that dimension is not what decides it.

    part 3 · diffraction
  4. Two kinds of atom, and more ambiguity rather than less. Exhaustive searches on rings of four sizes. The third column counts homometric groups when every atom is identical; the fourth counts them when each atom may be one of two kinds. The fourth is larger at every size, and at nine and ten sites the third is nothing at all — there is no pair of arrangements of four identical atoms that a diffraction experiment cannot separate, and there are six and four once the atoms may differ. Distinguishing the atoms adds information to the structure and adds ambiguity to the measurement.

    When the atoms are not all the same

    Every homometric pair found so far is a pair of point sets, where an atom is a point and counts once. Give the atoms different scattering powers and the ambiguity does not go away — it grows. On a ring of nine there is no pair of four identical atoms that diffraction cannot separate, and there are six once two kinds of atom are allowed.

    part 4 · diffraction
  5. Two symmetric structures a diffraction pattern cannot separate. Two arrangements of 6 atoms on a 6 × 6 torus, each invariant under the plane group p6m, drawn beside the Patterson they share. No translation and no inversion carries one onto the other, so they are different structures; every one of the thirty-six interatomic vector counts is the same, so every diffracted intensity is the same and no measurement at any resolution separates them. Of the 4 structures with this symmetry and this many atoms, there are only 3 Pattersons — so imposing the most symmetric of the seventeen plane groups has not removed the ambiguity.

    Symmetry does not rescue a Patterson

    Every homometric pair found so far sits on a bare ring with no operations imposed, and a real crystal sits in a space group. Impose one and the ambiguity does not go away: 12 of the 13 groups searched still have pairs, and at six atoms the hexagonal groups are indistinguishable two to three times as often as the general position.

    part 5 · diffraction
  6. Almost no homometric pair on the torus is a reversed factor. For ten plane groups at several numbers of atoms on a 6 × 6 torus, the structures, the pairs of structures sharing one Patterson, how many of those pairs reversing one factor of a sumset explains, and how many are a patchwork of Galois classes. Factor reversal explains 2 of 3522; the patchwork explains all 3522.

    A homometric twin is the structure moved class by class

    On a ring, every homometric pair a small search found came from one construction: factor the structure as a sumset and reverse one factor. Imposing a plane group on a torus made homometry more common, and the obvious guess was that symmetry makes structures easier to factor. Tested pair by pair, factor reversal explains two of 3,522 homometric pairs on a 6 × 6 torus, and none at all at six atoms. What explains all 3,522 is a different mechanism: the partner is the structure's own Fourier transform moved independently on each Galois class of characters, by a shift, a sign or an inversion.

    part 6 · diffraction

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